Copyright 1996 Linda Jones Roccos. Reproduced with her permission.
Please be aware some of the links and addresses on this site may be old.
If you seek further information internet search engines may be of assistance.
A Bibliographic Guide to the Study of Dolphin Intelligence
Prepared by
Linda Jones Roccos
December 1996
forBasic Information Resources 17:610:531
Prof. David Carr
School of Communication, Information and Library Studies
Rutgers, The State University
New Brunswick, NJ
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Introduction
1. Terminology and Scope
2. Primary Subject Headings
3. Encyclopedic Treatments
4. Handbooks, Manuals
5. Bibliographies, Literature Reviews
6. Recent Monographs
7. Recent Anthologies
8. Journals, Journal Articles
9. Indexes
10. Government Sources
11. Statistical Resources
12. Biographical Resources
13. Audiovisual Resources
14. Current Newsletters
15. Computer Access
16. Associations, Research Centers
17. Conferences, Annual Meetings
18. Recent Dissertations
References (1990-1996)
INTRODUCTION
As far back as Ancient Greece, dolphins have been known and loved by mankind, for legends relate their kindnesses to humans and their rescuing heroics. During the Greek god Apollo's travels from Crete to Delphi, he frightened some pirates by appearing in their ship as a dolphin, warning them to reform and worship him as Apollo Delphinius. Another Greek god, Dionysos, when learning that some pirates planned to sell him into slavery, threw them overboard and turned them into dolphins.
Although dolphins have been known to be clever and even human-like for millenia, their apparent intelligence has been investigated scientifically only in this century. Animal researchers, such as John Lilly (Section 12), first postulated that brain size has some relevance to intelligence, based on the large size of the dolphin brain compared to the human brain. Even when taken as a percentage of brain weight to body weight, the dolphin comes out second to humans, far above apes, chimpanzees, or even elephants. A chart from the 1994 article by Klinowska (Section 3) indicates the relevant sizes of brain weight to body weight.
| Human | 2.10 % of body weight |
| Bottlenose Dolphin | 0.94 % " |
| African Elephant | 0.15 % " |
| Killer Whale | 0.09 % " |
| Cow | 0.09 % " |
| Sperm Whale | 0.02 % " |
One important factor in measuring animal intelligence has been that tests previously used have been devised by humans using human-based measures, and Prof. Louis Herman (Section 12) has led the way to reconstructing dolphin tests. Recent research in conducting self-awareness tests on apes and chimpanzees has been modified for use with dolphins, who without the means of making and using tools, must be analyzed differently. Marten and Psarakos (Sections 7, 8) have been making great progress in devising purely animal-based tests for dolphins.
The modern literature on dolphins is enormous. A 1974 bibliography (Section 12) has 3,549 citations. More than two decades later, the literature must have at least doubled, to judge from the numerous citations offered from searches for "dolphin." For this bibliography and with great difficulty, those works that treat dolphin intelligence have been gleaned from the total, but some works that deal with dolphins in general have been included for their background information, such as their extraordinary use of echolocation for navigating.
There are two aspects to the study of "dolphin intelligence" -- the study of dolphins and dolphin behavior and the study of animal intelligence. References collected here include either works with a greater emphasis on dolphins or the cetacea order that include some information about their intelligence, or works with a greater emphasis on animal intelligence or behavioral studies that include some examples using dolphins.
This two-sided approach makes searching rather difficult, and a glance at the subject headings indicates just how many subject terms were used in these various sources. Two LC call numbers provided the best references: QL737.4 for cetacea/delphinidae, and QL785 for animal psychology. Dewey numbers have a similar breakdown: 591.5 for animal behavior, and 599.5 for cetacea and sirenia or 599.53 for dolphins among other odontoceti. A third classification was useful in a some cases, that for comparative psychology: BF660-685 in LC and 156.2-5 in Dewey.
1. TERMINOLOGY AND SCOPE
Scope
Dolphins have an international presence, appearing throughout the globe in nearly all temperate waters, and studies of their behavior have a correspondingly international appeal. For this study, however, resources primarily by Americans and in English have been collected. This represents an expedient in searching and reporting processes, but with some additional effort, a more global outlook could have been presented. The Encyclopedia Americana article (Section 3) on "Animal Behavior" clarifies the distinction between the European emphasis on ethology and the study of birds, fish and insects, and the American emphasis on comparative psychology and the study of mammals.
In the following guide, the most important references are listed and discussed first in each section, so that one with limited time would do well to consult those first of all. These are marked with an asterisk (*) and printed in bold type. When no reference in a section is so marked, then no one source proves better than the rest. The remaining references are discussed in reverse chronological order, that is the most recent are treated first. Since bibliographies exist to the early 1990s, for the most part only resources from 1990 on are presented, except when older resources have not been replaced or are especially noteworthy. A reference list is appended, with selected articles concerning dolphin intelligence from 1990 to 1996. Call numbers given are from Rutgers Univeristy Libraries unless otherwise noted.
Terminology
Most difficulties ensued from our most commonly researched dolphin, tursiops truncatus. Variations of the English name include: bottlenose dolphin, bottle-nose dolphin, and bottle-nosed dolphin. Most searches of one term gathered all of them. The broader term cetacea was used in some searches, but resulted in collecting material on whales as well as dolphins.
Gotch, A.F. (1996). Latin names explained: The scientific classification of reptiles, birds, & animals. NY: Facts on File. [QL353.G68 1995]
Klinowska, M. (1991). Dolphins, porpoises and whales of the world. The IUCN red data book. Gland, Switzerland: International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. [QL737.C4D65 1991]
List of 32 Dolphin Species from suborder odondoceti (after Klinowska 1991, vi-vii)
Family Delphinidae
2. PRIMARY SUBJECT HEADINGS, CALL NUMBERS
Subject Headings
Animal communication
Animal intelligence
Animal intelligence -- Congresses
Animal psychology
Atlantic bottlenosed dolphin
Atlantic bottlenosed dolphin -- Australia -- Queeensland
Atlantic bottlenosed dolphin -- South Pacific Ocean
Behavior, animal
Behavior, animal -- Congresses
Bottlenose dolphins
Cetacea
Cetacea -- Behavior
Dolphins
Dolphins -- Behavior
Dolphins -- Psychology
Dolphins and porpoises -- Animal behavior
Dolphins and porpoises -- Animal intelligence
Cognition -- Congresses
Cognition in animals
Cognitive science
Learning in animals
Learning -- Physiological aspects
Mammals -- Behavior
Mammals -- Psychology
Marine Mammals
Memory -- Physiological aspects
Psychology, comparative
Psychology, comparative -- Congresses
Social behavior in animalsCall Numbers LC Dewey
Psychology BF
Comparative Psychology BF660-685 156.2-5
Personality BF698-698.5 155.2-.28
Differential Psychology BF697.5 155
Zoology QL
Zoology, Mammals QL700-739.3 599
Vertebrates, orders A-Z QL737
Cetacea QL737.C4 599.5
Odontoceti QL737.C43 599.53
Delphinidae QL737.C432
Animal Behavior QL750-795 591.5
Special topics
Psychology, general QL785
3. ENCYCLOPEDIC TREATMENTS/BASIC ESSAY
The most informative introduction to the specific subject of dolphin intelligence is not from the enclycopedic accounts, which generally grant little space to the subject of dolphins or their intelligence, but rather more attention to the general physical descriptions and general behaviorial attributes of dolphins. The best introductions are, as we might expect, from experts in the field, particularly Louis Herman and Margaret Klinowska.
Klinowska's 1994 essay, available on the Interent, is one of the most thorough and clearly written introductions to any topic. Herman's 1991 article is more of a review article with references, summing up the state of research on various aspects of dolphins' learning behavior. Klinowska's entries in the Red data book (1991) on the two species of dolphins that have been most cooperative in studies, the bottlenose dolphin (tursiops truncatus) and the common dolphin (delphinus delphis), are models of completeness. Her short essay on smart cetaceans has been published in two different places, under different titles, but with essentially the same account, and on the Internet as well (Klinowska 1988 and 1989). An earlier account by Würsig (1979) is still relatively useful, although it doesn't take into account more recent research from the behavioral psychologists perspective.
Wexler, M. (1994). Thinking about dolphins. National Wildlife 32, Apr. 1: 4-9.
Herman, L.M. (1991). What the dolphin knows, or might know, in its natural world. In Pryor, K., & Norris, K.S. (Eds.) Dolphin societies: Discoveries and puzzles. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press: 349-363. [QL737.C432 D653 1991]
Klinowska, M. (1991). Dolphins, porpoises and whales of the world. The IUCN red data book. Gland, Switzerland: International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. "Bottlenose dolphin:" 157-171; "Common dolphin:" 191-200. [QL737.C4 D65 1991]
Klinowska, M. (1988). Are cetaceans especially smart? New Scientist 120, October 29: 46-47.
Klinowska, M. (1989). How brainy are cetaceans? In Whither the Whales? Special Issue of Oceanus. The International Magazine of Marine Science and Policy 32(1): 19-20. <http://tirpitz.ibg.uit.no/WWWW/literature/especially.html>
Booth, W. (1989). Unraveling the dolphin soap opera. Oceanus 32(1), 76-78.
In the special issue of Oceanus 32(1) for 1989, see also a short account comparing dolphins with chimpanzees.Würsig, B. (1979). Dolphins. Scientific American 240 (3), 136-148.
This somewhat older account is also very informative and thorough in assessing the factors which seem to prove or disprove the dolphins' intelligence quotient.General Encyclopedias
Most of these general works have very little to say about the intelligence factor of the dolphins, although they are useful for basic species information. All include photographs and a few include diagrams as well.
(*) World Book (1994), Chicago IL: World Book, Vol. 5: 296-300, "Dolphin" (D.K. Odell). [AE5.W55]
Very good basic introduction to the order of mammals called cetacea, concentrating on the two most common species, the bottle-nosed dolphin and the common dolphin. Descriptions and life patterns are given most space, but a short section on dolphins and people provides the basic facts of training and research undertaken in recent years.
Academic American Encyclopedia (1996) Danbury CT: Grolier. Vol. 2:11-17, "Animal behavior" (J. Alcock); Vol. 2:17-18, "Animal cognition" (C.A. Ristou); Vol. 6:227-229, "Dolphin" (M.C. Tavolga). [AE5.A23]
Excellent but brief introductions to the subjects considered here, written by experts in their fields.
Encyclopedia Americana (1995), Danbury CT: Grolier. Vol. 1:875-880, "Animal behavior" (T.E. McGill); Vol. 1:883-885, "Animal intelligence" (A.J. Riopelle); Vol. 9: 262 "Dolphin." [AE5.E333]
Although brief, the section on dolphins is concise. The explanation of the differences between European study of ethology and the American study of comparative psychology in the entry on "animal intelligence" is excellent.
Encyclopedia Britannica (1994), Chicago IL: Encyclopedia Britannica, Vol. 4: 159, "Dolphin." [AE5.E363]
An even briefer account here -- just one column -- but only this work notes the latin name of the two most common species. Not much under "Learning, mammalian abilities" either.
McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Science and Technology (1992). 7th Ed., ed. by S.P. Parker, 20 vols. NY:McGraw-Hill, [$1900.] Vol. 3: 450, "Cetacea" (V.B. Scheffer). [Q121.M3]
This entry includes whales and porpoises as well as dolphins, thus has little specific information about the dolphin species. A bibliography is appended.
Specialized Encyclopedias- Mammals
These entries provide more complete taxonomical information about the dolphin species, but little additional information on their relative intelligence.
(*) Parker, S.P. (Ed.). (1990). Grzimek's encyclopedia of mammals. v. 5. NY: McGraw-Hill [$500. set], Vol. 4: 397-419, "Dolphins" (W. Gewalt). [QL701.G7913 1990]
These five huge volumes are a new edition based on vols. 10-13 of Grzimek's animal life encyclopedia (1972-1975), and are probably beyond the reach of an individual's library. The introduction to each order is comprehensive, the detailed comparative charts for the species are informative, and the many color photographs are excellent. Arranged taxonomically, each volume contains specific orders, with the Cetacea in volume 4. The bibliography appears only at the end of each volume and is distressingly brief, and there is no index, so one must rely on the table of contents for each volume.
Nowak, R.M. (1991). Dolphins and porpoises. In Walker's mammals of the world. 2 vols. (5th ed.). Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, Vol. 2: 978-1003, "Dolphins." [QL703.N69]
This major work includes a complete list of 4,444 species (including extinct species) with descriptions, photos, drawings, charts, this work is arranged by order, with introductory remarks, then descriptions of each family and genus. A complete index in each volume makes finding relevant information quick, and a 113 page bibliography at the end of volume 2 is extremely comprehensive.
The Multimedia Encyclopedia of Mammalian Biology. [CD-ROM]. (1992) NY:McGraw-Hill. [$995. single-user; $1250. network]
Hypertext database format of Grzimek's five volume set noted above, with additional articles, and with videos, animal sounds, and more than 4000 photos. Good for school and public libraries.
Macdonald, D. (Ed.). (1984). The encyclopedia of mammals. NY: Facts on File Publications. [$65.] [QL703.E53]
Pp. 180-199, "Dolphins." This volume would be an excellent choice for a home library, for its 895 pages includes comprehensive treatment of mammal species in six sections: carnivores, sea mammals, primates, large herbivores, small herbivores, and insect-eaters. Dolphins are grouped here under their suborder, Odontoceti or Toothed Whales, and there are brief accounts of the 32 species, as well as an overview of the locations and features of some more popular species. An appendix gives distribution and common names, and a brief bibliography is appended.
4. HANDBOOKS, MANUALS, TEXTBOOKS
Despite having the name encyclopedia in the title, none of the following entries can be considered as such, but rather are introductory handbooks.
(*) Leatherwood, S., & Reeves, R.R. (1983). The Sierra Club handbook of whales and dolphins. San Francisco, CA: Sierra Club Books. [QL737.C4 L33 1983]
Very good introductory remarks on the various species, as well as the derivation of the names, for example, "Common Dolphin," Delphinus delphis (Linnaeus, 1758), from the Latin delphinus for dolphin or porpoise and from the Greek delphis for dolphin; "Bottlenose Dolphin," Tursips truncatus (Montagu, 1821), from the latin tursio for an animal like the dolphin (from Pliny), and the Greek ops for face, and from the Latin truncare for cut off.
"Bottlenose dolphins are the most common cetacean in captivity, ... Stories of dolphins befriending people have usually been about this species, since its coastal haunts and curiosity often bring it into close contact with humans. Some bottlenose dolphins have become 'residents' of particular areas, where they sometimes allow themselves to be touched."Gould, E., and McKay, G. (Eds.). (1990). Encyclopedia of animals: Mammals. NY: Gallery Books.
Despite the title, this is a good introductory handbook of 240 pages with many color photos and drawings, as well as brief descriptions of the more common species. It is not comprehensive, but selective.
Ellis, R. (1989). Dolphins and porpoises. NY: Knopf. [QL737.C43 E44 1989]
This is a companion volume to Ellis's book of whales; he describes 43 species of the platanistidae family (river dolphins) and delphinidae family (rest of dolphins, some whales).
Harrison, R., & Bryden, M.M. (Eds.). (1988). Whales, dolphins, and porpoises. NY: Facts on File. [QL737.C4 W442 1988]
Well illustrated and quite informative, although better for whales.
5. BIBLIOGRAPHIES, LITERATURE REVIEWS, GUIDES TO LIT.
(*) Basham, S.E., & Karmon, K.M. (1995). Marine mammals: A selected bibliography. Washington, DC: U. S. Marine Mammal Commission. [Y3.M33/3:2 R32/995]
Bell, G.H., & Rhodes, D.B. (1994). A guide to the zoological literature: The animal kingdom. Englewood, CO: Libraries Unlimited, Inc. [QL45.2.B45 1994]
Specially useful are Chapter 1, General Reference Sources and Chapter 8, Mammals.Reeves, R.R., & Leatherwood, S. (1994). 1994-1998 Action Plan for the Conservation of Cetaceans. Dolphins, porpoises, and whales. IUCN/SSC Cetacean Specialist Group. [QL737.C4 1994]
Extensive references, pp. 71-85. (See Section J, Government Sources.)Niskern, D. (1991). Dolphins. Science Reference Section, Sicence and Technology Division, Library of Congress. Washington DC: LOC TB 91-10.
Herman, L.M. (1991). What the dolphin knows, or might know, in its natural world. In Pryor, K., & Norris, K.S. (Eds.) Dolphin societies: Discoveries and puzzles. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press: 349-363. [QL737.C432 D653 1991]
Literature review of studies on research with dolphins in laboratories and conclusions relating the findings to dolphins in the wild. References, pp. 360-363. (See section C, Basic Essays.)Herman, L.M., & Morrel-Samuels, P. (1990). Knowledge acquisition and asymmetry between language comprehension and production: Dolphins and apes as general models for animals. In Bekoff, M., & Jamieson, D. (Eds.). Interpretation and explanation in the study of animal behavior. Vol. 1. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. [QL751.157 1990]
References, pp. 301-312.Truitt, D. (1974). Dolphins and porpoises: A comprehensive, annotated bibliography of the smaller cetacea. Detroit, MI: Gale, "Communication," pp. 387-392; "Intelligence," pp. 393-395. [QL737.C432 T75]
If this extremely comprehensive bibliography were updated, it would be the number one resource for this subject, but alas, the material gathered is now nearly 25 years old, and many changes have come about since the latest material included, 1972. However the 3,549 citations here provide a history of the research in the field, from the earliest sources. Citations are arranged first by categories, such as anatomy, behavior, reproduction, or identification, then chronologically within each section from earliest published to most recent. This makes finding recent or early sources of specific areas a simple task, and seems much more useful than the usual alphabetical arrangement. There are author, subject, and taxonomic name indexes, which provide excellent access.
6. RECENT MONOGRAPHS
As with most of the sciences in general, there is less emphasis on monographs and more on journals and anthologies, which generally have a more immediate publication history. Although less critical here than in medicine, the practise is similar. Thus, there are few works on dolphins in particular or even cetacea in general, and not one on the subject of "dolphin intelligence."
(*) Klinowska, M. (1991). Dolphins, porpoises and whales of the world. The IUCN red data book. Gland, Switzerland: International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. [QL737.C4 D65 1991]
This comprehensive work discusses all species of the cetacea order, with its three suborders: archaeoceti or "ancient" whales now extinct, mysticeti or primarily the larger baleen whales including the popular 30 meter long blue whale, and the generally smaller odontoceti or toothed whales, of which dolphins are among the 70 known species. An overview by J. Cooke discusses the difference in species and eating habits, and the use of terms, of which dolphin is generally misused. A list of the species in taxonomic order is given (pp. 7-9).
Vauclair, J. (1996). Animal cognition: An introduction to modern comparative psychology. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. [QL785.V335 1996]
Just off of the new book shelf, this small volume (206pp.) packs a lot of information into its unassuming covers. To quote the jacket, "An ideal text for entry-level students taking their first course in animal cognition," and "A balanced, well-informed, and completely up-to-date overview of recent studies of animal cognition." Chapters cover origins and developments from the Darwinian heritage, laboratory methods, animal psychology, tool use, social cognition, communication, and imitation. Although there is relatively little about dolphin intelligence specifically, there is a broad view of how we think that animals think.
Evans, P.G.H. (1987). The natural history of whales and dolphins. NY: Facts on File. [QL737.C4 E93 1987]
Perhaps not so recent now, but extremely comprehensive and informative about the basic facts on various aspects of cetacea. It includes chapters on evolution, classification, distribution, feeding, life history. For the intelligence question, a chapter on social organisation and behavior has a subsection on "Communication, co-operation and intelligence" (pp. 188-205). With bibliography (five references to Herman, nine to Leatherwood) and index, as well as a good introduction to the order Cetacea, a new edition would be in order.
7. RECENT ANTHOLOGIES OR PROCEEDINGS
Here, the searching is much more rewarding, for scores of compendia can be found on the subject either of dolphins, including studies of their intelligence, or of animal intelligence in general. Included here are a selection of both aspects, with a few not so recent works included, since they have been cited to a considerable extent by the later studies.
(*) Parke, S.T., Mitchel, R.W., & Boccia, M.L. (Eds.). (1994). Self-awareness in animals and humans: Developmental perspectives. NY: Cambridge University Press. [Princeton.SW/BF697.5.S43 S43 1994]
Marino, L., Reiss, D., & Gallup, G.G.Jr. Mirror self-recognition in bottlenose dolphins: Implications for comparative investigations of highly dissimilar species, pp. 390-391.
Marten, K., & Psarakos, S. Evidence of self-awareness in the bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus), pp. 361-379.
The latter article by Marten & Psarakos has generated enormous interest and a glut of citations, both pro and con. The authors studied a changing group of five dolphins living at Sea Life Park, Hawaii, in a tank complex with windows having either a one-way mirror or a television monitor. By placing marks on the dolphins and watching how and if the dolphin maneuvered in front of the mirror to view the mark, an attempt was made to determine whether their behavior was social, interacting with a potential unknown dolphin, or self-examination. By video-taping the dolphins' activities, they hoped to answer the question, "Was the dolphin examining its mark?"
In short, would the dolphin think that the image in the mirror was another dolphin? Various controls of marking and unmarking, mirror and no mirror, attempted to provide a scientific basis for the test. Some of the dolphins were placed with unknown dolphins, and they paid nearly 100% attention to the new dolphins for the time period, whereas they paid attention to their mirror image less than 1% of the time period. They clearly knew the difference between a real dolphin and a mirror dolphin. In previous experiments using self-view television, the authors observed that an adult dolphin reacted to the video playing as to the mirror, exhibiting self-examination, but that younger dolphins showed less interest.Mackintosh, N.J. (Ed.). (1994). Animal learning and cognition. San Diego, CA: Academic Press. [QL785.A728 1994]
Rumbaugh, D.M., & Savage-Rumbaugh, E.S. Language in comparative perspective, pp. 307-333.
Roitblat, H.L., Herman, L.M., & Nachtigall, P.E. (Eds.). (1993). Language and communication: Comparative perspectives. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. [P106.L3134 1993]
Herman, L.M., Pack, A.A., & Morrel-Samuels, P. (1993). Representational and conceptual skills of dolphins, pp. 403-442.
Holder, M.D., Herman, L.M., & Kuczaj, S. II. A bottlenosed dolphin's responses to anomalous sequences expressed within an artificial gestural language, pp. 444-455.
Pryor, K., & Norris, K.S. (Eds.). (1991). Dolphin societies. Discoveries and puzzles. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. [QL737.C432 D653 1991]
Herman, L.M. What the dolphin knows, or might know, in its natural world, pp. 349-363.
This essay by a major researcher on dolphin intelligence presents a review of the literature on cognitive processes of dolphins in laboratory studies, with a conlusion relating the findings to the life of dolphins in the wild. Dolphins interact with the world through both auditory and visual stimuli, and they can process data and then generalize from either aspect, having excellent auditory memory skills as well as the more famed visually based mimicry skills.
Bekoff, M., & Jamieson, D. (Eds.). (1996). Readings in animal cognition. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. [QL785.R27.1996] [Includes a selection of essays from the 1990 volume.]
Bekoff, M., & Jamieson, D. (Eds.). (1990). Interpretation and explanation in the study of animal behavior. 2 v. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. [QL751.157 1990]
Herman, L.M., & Morrel-Samuels, P. (1990). Knowledge acquisition and assymetry between language comprehension and production: Dolphins and apes as general models for animals, pp. 283-312.
The thesis of Herman and Morrel-Samuels is that animals differ in their receptive and productive competencies, and should be measured based on their need for one over the other in their own natural world. An extensive 11-page bibliography including sources from 1989, supports their contentions, and makes this paper nearly a summary of previous research on these aspects animal behavior. Whether the dolphins' superior abilities in mimicking sounds and behavior or his imitation skills are an indication of intelligence is discussed, as is the difference between language comprehension and language production in dolphins, apes, and human children.
Leatherwood, S., & Reeves, R.R. (Eds.). (1990). The bottlenose dolphin. San Diego, CA: Academic Press. [QL737.C432 B67 1990]
Ridgway, S.H. The central nervous system of the bottlenose dolphin, pp. 69-97.
Ballance, L.T. Resident patterns, group organization, and surfacing associations of bottlenose dolphins in Kino Bay, Gulf of California, Mexico, pp. 267-293.
Shane, S.H. Comparison of bottlenose dolphin behavior in Texas and Florida, with a critique of methods for studying dolphin behavior, pp. 541-558.
Goforth, H.W., Jr. Ergometry (exercise testing) of the bottlenose dolphin, pp. 559-574.
Schusterman, R.J., Thomas, J.A., & Wood, F.G. (Eds.). (1986). Dolphin cognition and behavior. A comparative approach. Hillsdale NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. [QL737.C432 D65 1986]
Menzel, E.W., Jr. How can you tell if an animal is intelligent?, pp. 167-181.
Hunt, E. Describing intelligence, pp. 183-205.
Savage-Rumbaugh, E.S., & Hopkins, W.D. Awareness, intentionality, and acquired communicative behaviors. Dimensions of intelligence, pp. 303-313.
Herman, L. M. (Ed.). (1980). Cetacean behavior. Mechanisms and functions. NY: John Wiley & Sons. [QL737.C4 C37 1980]
Herman, L.M., & Tavolga, W.N. The communication systems of cetaceans, pp. 149-210.
Herman, L.M. Cognitive characteristics of dolphins, pp. 363-430.
8. JOURNALS/JOURNAL ARTICLES
Behavior and Cognition:
Animal Learning & Behavior
Applied Animal Behavior Science
Consiousness & Cognition
Consciousness & Cognition. An International Journal 4 (2), 1995. (Special Issue on dolphin behavior)
Journal of Comparative Psychology
Journal of Experimental Psycholopgy: Animal Behavior Processes
Journal of Experiemntal Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition
Marine Mammals:
Aquatic Mammals
Cetology
Journal of Mammolgy
Journal of Marine Science
Mammalia
Marine Mammal Science
Oceanus
Articles in Journals (a selection):
(*) Marten, K., & Psarakos, S. (1995). Using self-view television to distinguish between self-examination and social behavior in the bottlenose dolphin (tursiops truncatus). Consciousness & Cognition 4 (2), 205-224.
This is a similar study to that by Marten & Psarakos discussed above in Section 7, here comparing behavior in front of self-view television monitors rather than mirrors. Dolphins showed little interest in the images seen in play-back mode, but considerable self-examination in self-view mode.
The study had been given to reviewers before publication, and their comments, plus Marten's & Psarakos's reply to the comments are published as well in this volume. Altogether this is a fascinating volume for many aspects of dolphin and animal intelligence. The following works are the responses to the Marten & Psarakos study.Gallup, G.G., Jr. (1995). Mirrors, minds, and cetaceans. Consciousness & Cognition 4 (2), 226-228.
Mitchell, R.W. (1995). Evidence of dolphin self-recognition and the difficulties of interpretation. Consciousness & Cognition 4 (2), 229-243.
Reiss, D., & Marino, L. (1995). Self-view television as a test of self-awareness: Only in the eyes of the beholder? Consciousness & Cognition 4 (2), 235-238.
Anderson, J.R. (1995). Self-recognition in dolphins: credible cetaceans; compromised criteria, controls, and conclusions. Consciousness & Cognition 4 (2), 239-243.
Hart, D., & Whitlow, J.W., Jr. (1995). The experience of self in the bottlenose dolphin. Consciousness & Cognition 4 (2), 244-247.
Candland, D.K. (1995). Reflections from reading the first sentence. Consciousness & Cognition 4 (2), 248-250.
Sevcik, R.A. (1995). "Is it live or is it Memorex?" Consciousness & Cognition 4 (2), 251-253.
Loveland, K.A. (1995). Self-recognition in the bottlenose dolphin: Ecological considerations. Consciousness & Cognition 4 (2), 254-257.
Marten, K., & Psarakos, S. (1995). Marten and Psarakos commentary response. Consciousness & Cognition 4 (2), 258-269.
Harley, H.E., Roitblat, H.L., & Nachtigall, P.E. (1996). Object representation in the bottlenose dolphin (tursiops truncatus): Integration of visual and echoic information. Journal of Experimental Psychology. Animal Behavior Processes 22 (2), 164-174.
A favored test of animal cognition is the matching-to-sample test, in which dolphins generally perform quite well. This experiment determined that the dolphin has an object-based representational system, since performance was markedly better when visual/echoic conditions were combined.
McCowan, B., & Reiss, D. (1995). Whistle contour development in captive-born infant bottlenose dolphins (tursiops truncatus) - role of learning. Journal of Comparative Psychology 109 (3), 242-260.
Herman, L.M., Pack, A.A., & Wood, A.M. (1994). Bottlenose dolphins can generalize rules and develop abstract concepts. Marine Mammal Science 101(1), 70-80.
Reiss, D., & McCowan, B. (1993). Spontaneous vocal mimicry and production by bottlenose dolphins (tursiops truncatus) - Evidence for vocal learning. Journnal of Comparative Psychology 107 (3), 301-312.
Behavior differed between two female bottlenose dolphins and their male offspring. Only the males used an underwater keyboard that generated whistles
9. INDEXES
Current contents: Life sciences. Philadelphia, PA: Institute for Scientific Information [DIALOG file 440]
Index to scientific and technical proceedings. Philadelphia, PA: Institute for Scientific Information. [AS15.I532]
Index to scientific reviews. Philadelphia, PA: Institute for Scientific Information. [Q1.I542]
Aquatic sciences and fisheries abstracts. Part 1, Biological sciences and living resources. [DIALOG file 44] [QH90.A1 A68]
Biological abstracts. [QH301.B37]
Oceanic Abstracts. [DIALOG file 28] [GC1.024]
Science citation index. Philadelphia, PA: Institute for Scientific Information, 1978- monthly, annual cumulative. [DIALOG files 34, 432, 433, 434, from 1974] [Z7401.S365]
Zoological record. Philadelphia, PA: BIOSIS, Zoological Society of London. [DIALOG file 185] [Z7991.Z87}
10. GOVERNMENT SOURCES
The U.S. government has a greater interest in endangered species and in protecting dolphins from human intervention, than in supporting research on their intelligence, and perhaps this is all to the good. The Marine Mammal Commission periodically issues reports and bibliographies.
(*) Reeves, R.R., & Leatherwood, S. (1994). 1994-1998 Action Plan for the Conservation of Cetaceans. Dolphins, porpoises, and whales. IUCN/SSC Cetacean Specialist Group. [QL737.C4 1994]
Includes 15-page list of references to the cetaceans under consideration, and although the primary interest is in conservation and exploitation concerns, there are references to studies of dolphin behavior. The authors point out that for the smaller cetaceans, dolphins in particular, a great danger is not so much the few captured for studies and experiments, but the large numbers sacrificed to fishing industries. Chapters explore the problems faced by cetaceans; Possible solution to conservation problems; Status of species and populations; and Recommended conservation action. The bottlenose dolphins, which are so easily trained, have shown greatly diminished numbers, and this is cause for concern to future scientists.
U.S. Congress, House Committee on Resources. International Dolphin Conservation Program Act of 1996: Report together with dissenting and additional dissenting views. House of Representatives, 104th Congress, July 10, 1996. Washington, DC: USGPO.
U.S. Congress, House Committee on Merchant Marine and Fisheries, Subcommittee on Oversight and Investigations. Mass mortality of bottlenose dolphins in 1987-88: Hearings before the Subcommittee on Oversight and Investigations of the Committee on Merchant Marine and Fisheries, House of Reprsentatives, 101st Congress, May 9, 10, 1989. Washington, DC: USGPO. [KF27.M474 1989c]
Basham, S.E., & Karmon, K.M. (1995). Marine mammals: A selected bibliography. Washington, DC: U. S. Marine Mammal Commission. [US.Y3.M33/3:2.R32/995]
Wallace, R.L. (1994). The Marine Mammal Commission compendium of selected treaties, international agreements, and other relevant documents on marine resources, wildlife, and the environment. 3 vols. Washington DC: Marine Mammal Commission. [Y3.M.33/3:2.T.71/V.1-3]
Niskern, D. (1991). Dolphins. Science Reference Section, Sicence and Technology Division, Library of Congress. Washington DC: TB 91-10. Also from the Library of Congress gopher site: <gopher://marvel.loc.gov:70/00/... bibs.guides/tracer/dolphins>
This "tracer-bullet" has information on dolphins in general, rather than on the question of dolphin intelligence. Many of the general introductory works are useful for basic background information.
11. STATISTICAL RESOURCES
Understandably, intelligence is not a quantifiable subject, and as a result, there are few statistical studies of dolphin intelligence. There are numerous studies using statistical methods for analyzing various aspects of dolphins, such as numbers in a pod, or in a certain area.
12. BIOGRAPHICAL RESOURCES
Two names stand out among those who investigate dolphin intelligence, first Dr. John C. Lilly, M.D., and secondly, Prof. Louis M. Herman. Although Lilly's pioneering work from the 1950s has recently been criticized as unscientific, he was among the first to explore the learning capabilities of the dolphin. He constructed living quarters to have an assistant actually live with a dolphin for several months. He has been listed in Who's Who in America since 1974, and several times in Who's Who in the World. His home page provides access to many of his papers and bibliography, including two of his popular books, Man and dolphin (1961) and The mind of the dolphin (1967). http://www.johnclilly.com/
Prof. Louis M. Herman, a social scientist and Director of the Kewalo Basin Marine Laboratory at the University of Hawaii, has conducted many empirical studies of dolphin behavior, and can be found in American Men and Women in Science, from 1973. An interview with Prof. Herman can be found in Omni Magazine 11 (June 1989), 76-78. The Kewalo Basin Laboratory can be found on the Internet. http://www.dolphin-institute.org/
13. AUDIOVISUAL RESOURCES
Videorecordings of dolphins abound, especially about humans swimming with dolphins, but few are relevant to our immediate subject of dolphin intelligence.
One collection found on the Internet contains an extremely lengthy list of all sorts of videos, including dolphin therapy and dolphin swimming programs, as well as serious research. <http://www.physics.helsinki.fi/whale/ligerature/video/videogra.html>
From various sources, the following videorecordings look promising, but have not been seen by this reviewer.
Declassified: U.S. Navy Dolphins, Hosted by Bill Kurtis from The New Explorers series on U.S. Public Television. From Public Media Education, 5547 N. Ravenswood Ave., Chicago IL 60640-1199.
Navy trained dolphins use their sonar abilities to sweep for mines and to locate lost divers.
The Dolphin Diaries. From BBC series Natural World. Narrated by David Attenborough; produced by Mark Jacobs.
Study of Atlantic spotted dolphins in the Bahamas by Denise Herzing's Wild Dolphin Project.
Dolphins: Close Encounters. From the Nature series on U.S. public television. Wolfgang Bayer Production with Thirteen/WNET and Granada Television, Ltd. 1992.
Includes footage of researchers including Louis Herman and the Kewalo Basin Lab, Ken Marten and Project Delphis, Diana Reiss and Marine World in Vallejo CA, among others.
14. CURRENT NEWSLETTERS
Newsletters in Print, 1996-97. Detroit: Gale. [ALEX Z6941.N3]
Marine Mammal News [NIP 5319]
Nautilus Press, Inc., 1054 National Press Bldg., Washington DC 20045.Interspecies Newsletter [NIP 5305]
273 Hidden Meadow Ln., Friday Harbor WA 98250Spyhopper [NIP 7560]
American Cetacean Society, P.O. Box 1391, San Pedro CA 90733
15. COMPUTER ACCESS
Searching for dolphin intelligence on any of the usual web search engines is a lesson in the problems of the mass of information on the Internet in late 1996. One gets everything from the Miami Dolphins football team, to dolphin healing locations, to swimming with dolphin programs, as well as everything with "dolphin" in its name. After discarding four out of five sites as funky or just useless, several collections are chosen for various aspects of the subject.
Articles first published elsewhere
(*) Marten, K., & Psarakos, S. (1995). Evidence of self-awareness in the bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus). In Parke, S.T., Mitchel, R.W., & Boccia, M.L. (Eds.). Self-awareness in animals and humans: Developmental perspectives. NY: Cambridge University Press. (For discussion of this article, see above under Section 7.) <http://leahi.kcc.hawaii.edu/~et/delart.html>
Klinowska, M. (1994). Brains, behavior and intelligence in cetaceans (whales, dolphins and porpoises). 11 Essays on whales and man. 2nd ed. <http://.highnorth.no/br-be-an.htm>
Blackstock, R. (1970, 1995). Dolphins and man...Equals? [Updated with links to dolphin internet pages] <http://www.polaris.net/~rblacks/dolphins.htm>
Klinowska, M. (1988). Are cetaceans especially smart? New Scientist 120, Oct. 29. <http://tirpitz.ibg.uit.no/WWWW/literature/especially.html>
Professional Resources
(*) Cetacean Behavior Laboratory
Psychology Department, San Diego State University, San Diego, CA 92182 <http://www.sci.sdsu.edu/CBL/CBLHome.html>Kewalo Basin Marine Mammal Laboratory, University of Hawaii http://www.dolphin-institute.org/
Marine Mammal Meetings, Symposiums and Conferences <http://whales.magna.com.au/events.html>
Project Delphis: Dolphin Cognition Research -- Earthtrust at Sea Life Park; 25 Kaneohe Bay Drive, Suite 205, Kailue, Hawaii 96734 <http://leahi.kcc.hawaii.edu/~et/>
Popular Resources
Clearwater Marine Aquarium, Clearwater FL. <http://www.flsun.com/wild_eco/dolphwon.htm>
Marine Mammal Survey, Wild Dolphin Project - Bahamas Naturalist Expedition <http://www.wwwa.com/dolphin/bahamas.htm>
Pacific Cetacean Group, P.O. Box 378, Moss Landing CA 95039. <http://infomanage.com/PCG/>
Sea World, Busch Gardens FL <http://www.bev.net/education/SeaWorld/bottlenose_dolphin/bottlenose_dolphins.html>
Newsgroup: alt.animals.dolphins
Private Resources
(*) Whales, Dolphins and Porpoises (a good introductory site) <http://www.premier1.net:80/~iamdavid/whale.html>
The Dolphin Page <http://mingus.loni.ucla.edu:1028/FURMANSKI/dolphin2.html>
Marine Mammal WWW List <http://elpc54136.lboro.ac.uk/links.html>
16. ASSOCIATIONS, RESEARCH CENTERS
Many associations now have web pages for attracting volunteers and paying members. Useful too are the the following directories:
Life Sciences Organizations and Agencies Directory, Detroit, MI: Gale, 1988 [GH321.L54].
Encyclopedia of Associations , Detroit, MI: Gale, 1995. [HS17.G3] [DIALOG file 114].
International Directory of Marine Science Libraries and information centers Woods Hole, MA: IAMSLIC, 1987. [Z675.M35 W56 1987]
Professional Societies
Society for Marine Mammalogy
1041 New Hampshire St., P.O. Box 367, Lawrence, KS 66044.
Dues: $75. Full annual; $70. Associate annual; $50. Student annual; $100. Institution.
(membership includes journal: Marine Mammal Science)
<http://pegasus.cc.ucf.edu/~smm/>
Biennal Conferences on the Biology of Marine Mammals
Papers available from the Society for Marine Mammalogy
1993, 10th, Galveston TX; 1995, 11th, Orlando FL
Abstracts from 11th Conference:
<http://www.sci.sdsu.edu/CBL/Abs.html>American Cetacean Society, P.O. Box 2639, San Pedro CA 90731.
<http://riceinfo.rice.edu/armadillo/Endanger/AOS/acs.html>American Society of Mammalogists
Dept. of Zoology, Brigham Young University, Provo UT 84602
(membership includes journal: Journal of Mammalogy)Research Centers
International Research Centers Directory. 9th Ed., 1997. Detroit, MI: Gale.
Research Centers Directory 21st Ed., 1996-97. Detroit, MI: Gale [AS25.D5].
Nearly four columns of references lists Marine research centers of various kinds, but few for dolphin research. One would assume that those based at universities, such as the University of Hawaii and San Diego State University would support more scientific research.
Cetacean Behavior Laboratory, San Diego State University,
Dept. of Psychology, San Diego, CA 92182.
Director: Dr. R.H. DefranDolphin Marine Research,
P.O. Box 313, Winthrop, WA 98862.
Director: Robert W. HultDolphin Research Center,
P.O. Box Dolphin, Marathon Shores, FL 33052.
President: Jayne Shannon-RodriguezKewalo Basin Marine Mammal Laboratory, University of Hawaii,
1120 Ala Moana Blvd., Honolulu, HI 968124.
Director: Dr. Louis M. HermanMarine Biological Laboratory,
7 MBL St., Woods Hole, MA 02543
Director: John E. BurrisMarine Mammal Research, Marine World Foundation,
2001 Marine World, Vallejo, CA 94589.
Exec. Dir. Mary CaseyICERC: International Cetacean Education Research Centres
P.O. Box 110, Nambucca NSW, Australia 2448
<http://www.physics.helsinki.fi/whale/icerc/icerc.html>ICERC Communicaire Europe
email: 100124.1643@compuserve.com
<http://www.best.be/Agora/Communicare/>
17. CONFERENCES, ANNUAL MEETINGS
Marine mammal scientists, just as scientists in general, are in the forefront of providing web access to information about meetings. Many can be found from the Internet searches; others can be located from the organizations noted in Section 16.
Calendar of Marine Mammal Meetings, Symposiums, and Conferences:
<http://whales.magna.com.au/events.html>Marine World Foundation, 1997 Symposium on Information Processing by Aquatic Mammals; 6-11 April, 1997, Vallejo, CA.
American Cetacean Society 1996 Conference: Whales in Today's World: Bridging Science, Policy, and People; November 8-10, 1996, San Pedro, CA.
International Workshop on Methods and Techniques in Behavioral Research: Measuring Behavior '96; 16-18 October, Utrecht, The Netherlands.
Fifth International Dolphin and Whale Conference, May 2-5, 1996, Brussels, Belgium
<http://www.best.be/Agora/Communicare/lcerc_flyer.html>1994 International Symposium on the Biology of Marine Mammals in the North East Atlantic.
Blix, A.S., Walloe, L., & Ulltang, O. (1995). Whales, seals, fish, and man: Proceedings of the International Symposium on the Biology of Marine Mammals in the North East Atlantic, Tromso, Norway, 29 November-1 Decmeber 1994. Amsterdam: Elsevier. [QL713.25.I57.1994]Biennal Conferences on the Biology of Marine Mammals, Society for Marine Mammalogy:
1993, 10th, Galveston TX; 1995, 11th, Orlando FL
<http://www.sci.sdsu.edu/CBL/Abs.html>First annual Atlantic Coastal Dolphin Conference - March 6-7. 1993, Newport News, VA
<http://members.aol.com/adrcnet/adrc0001.html>
18. RECENT DISSERTATIONS
Dissertation Abstracts available as CD-ROM provides the most recent works. Searching for "dolphins" in the 1993-1996 index produced 34 hits, but most investigated the physical aspects of dolphins.
(*) Pack, A. A. (1995). Cross-modal recognition of complexly-shaped objects by a bottlenosed dolphin (tursiops truncatus) using vision and echolocation. Ph.D. Diss. University of Hawaii, Honolulu, HI.
McCowan, B. (1994). Ontogeny of whistle structure and context in captive-born infant bottlenose dolphins (tursiops truncatus): Birth through the first year. Ph.D. Diss. Harvard University, Cambridge, MA.
Sayigh, L.S. (1992). Development and functions of signature whistles of free-ranging bottlenose dolphins, tursiops truncatus. Ph. D. Diss. Massachusetts Intitute of Technology and Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution. Woods Hole, MA.
REFERENCES (1990-1996)
Copyright 1996 Linda Jones Roccos
